Parody Through Counter Examples Essay

Counter examples are used throughout this play, and is a key role in the parody of the play. On both male and female sides of the dynamics in the play the first one is right from the start. â€Å"the streets are absolutely clogged with frantic females banging on tambourines. No urging for an orgy!† (727) In the â€Å"Classical Age† of Athens upperclass women assumed the role of a housewife, where their duties were to either clean up the house or organize the slaves of the house to do it for them. It was unheard of for women to be out in the streets like this period much less at night. The women of Athens formed together to plot against the men to bring them home from the war. As the women were gathering to plan against the men, Lysistrata said, â€Å"I’m on fire right down to the bone. I’m positively ashamed to be a woman—a member of a sex which can’t even live up to male slanders! To hear our husbands talk, we’re sly: deceitful, alwa ys plotting, monsters of intrigue†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (728) this quote makes me laugh, because while she is saying this her and multiple women are plotting a way to get back at the men. This quote plays off the stereotype that a woman is always out to make a mans life miserable in everything they do, but this is exactly the thing they are trying to do. While the women are out in the streets they continue to show how ridiculous they are when they are complaining on how much they do for their men. This quote by Kleonike is a prime example, â€Å"They’ll be here. You know a woman’s way is hard mainly the way out of the house: fuss over hubby, wake the maid up, put the baby down, bathe him, feed him†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (728) Kleonike goes on and on about how much work they have to do, but she mentions that she gets up the maid, which does the work for her. This quote plays of the stereotype that women do a lot of house work, but in the play they have maids so obviously they are not doing too much. Counter examples are a huge part of the parody that is within the play, all of my previous quotes had stereotypes in them, but they all counter themselves. Parody’s are still very popular today, for example the movie Space Balls which is a parody of Star Wars. Space Balls makes fun of everything that is taken very seriously in Star Wars, which gives the movie that comedy feel a parody comes with. Throughout the play, parody is seen in both the men and the women. The stereotype that men are strong and tough is presented towards the beginning of the play at the gates of the treasury. â€Å"Never been confronted with such backtalk. Can’t allow it. Somebody pick up a log and pulverize that brass.† (740) Immediately following this the men are easily silence by nothing more than a bunch of women carrying water. These rough and tough men seen in the previous quote were defeated by nothing more than water. â€Å"[Shivering, the CHORUS OF MEN retreats in utter defeat†¦]† (742) After the men’s defeat they run away to the Commissioner, and he is sent home packing after several attempts to â€Å"out man† Lysistrata. â€Å"Gross ineptitude. A sorry day for the Force.†(745) This also relates to a parody in our modern day times with our own military. I here people complain about so many things our military does and stands for, yet the majority of the people criticizing are too afraid to join the military to begin with. So this â€Å"manly† stereotype applies to modern times as well, men are quick to jump up to fight someone, but do they go through with it most of time, no. This quick battle also shows how brutal these Athenian women are, when women of the classical age were to only be seen not heard. Women were used as trophies most of the time, to be seen only and never heard. In this quote you get a typical stereotype of the women of this time, â€Å"Glamor is our only talent. All we can do is sit, primped and painted made up and dressed up,† (729). Women were never known to be violent, but in this quick battle with the men and the commissioner we see how brutal these women are, â€Å"INTO THE FRAY! Show them no mercy! Push! Jostle! Shove! Call them nasty names! Don’t be lady like!†(745) In no way, form, or fashion are these ladies being lady like in this scene, which is another perfect example of parody runs wild throughout this play making it out to be the comedy it was made to be. All of these counter examples play favor to my leading argument which is the fact that the women in this play use parody the most through abstinence by withholding sex. This is the biggest parody of them all. This play revolves around sex, but the whole goal of the women’s tactics is to refrain from it. It’s easy to see with my following examples that this play uses parody around every turn. The parody in this play does not come without a type of counter example of a stereotype that is either assumed or given throughout the play. In this time frame, women would have never been allowed to do this. If you can put your mindset in the classical age of Athens it’s easy to see how funny and how much parody is actually used.

Weather, Evil, and Chaos in Macbeth

Weather, Evil, and Chaos in Macbeth â€Å"So foul and fair a day I have not seen† (1. 3. 38) proclaims Macbeth as he unwittingly echoes the Weird Sisters’ incantation from the opening scene of Macbeth. The imagery of foul weather permeates the play, setting the tone and underscoring the unnaturalness of Macbeth’s treacherous behavior. Foul weather symbolizes both evil and the chaos it creates, and the most important function of weather imagery is to link Macbeth with evil and chaos. The connection between foul weather and evil is emphasized from the opening of the play. The stage directions for scene I reads, â€Å"Thunder and lightning. As the witches enter and begin speaking, the connection between evil and weather is established: â€Å"When shall we three meet again / In thunder, lightning, or in rain? † (1. 1. 1-2). This is an interesting question, since the audience later learns (during the witches’ second appearance) that the witches themselv es can control winds and create storms. Before Macbeth appears on stage, foul weather is firmly associated with the forces of evil. Thus Macbeth’s opening line (quoted above) foreshadows his descent into evil. The evil that takes root in Macbeth’s soul ultimately leads to chaos. To early modern audiences, murdering a king represented perhaps the greatest evil that man might commit, for the monarch was the highest human link in the great chain of being linking man to God. When Macbeth murders Duncan, he severs the great chain, throwing everything into chaos. According to Tillyard, To us chaos means hardly more than confusion on a large scale; to an Elizabethan it meant the cosmic anarchy before creation and the wholesale dissolution that would result if the pressure of Providence relaxed and allowed the laws of nature to cease functioning. 16) That such chaos exists within the world of the play is emphasized when Lennox and Ross discuss the unnatural weather during the night of Duncan’s murder. Lennox’s remarks imply a connection between foul weather and chaos: â€Å"The night has been unruly†¦. Our chimneys were blown down†¦. Some say the earth was feverous and did shake† (2. 3. 50-57). Ross’s response suggests that natu re has died, an idea anticipated by Macbeth’s earlier observation, â€Å"nature seems dead† (2. 1. 50). In a sense, nature has died with Duncan, and the destructive weather reveals that evil and chaos rule in his place. The references to foul and unnatural weather underscore Macbeth’s relationship to chaos and evil. The murder of Duncan creates chaos that undoes many characters, until nature is revived by the death of Macbeth. Foul weather imagery is thus an important aspect of the play, serving not only to provide a sinister atmosphere but also to symbolize the chaos that follows the murder of a king. Such imagery powerfully contributes to making Macbeth one of Shakespeare’s darkest and most powerful tragedies.

Business Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Business Report - Essay Example This helps us to engross in a business scenario design and recommend substitute strategies ensuring a comprehensive market appraisal. Later in the document contains the endorsements for the modifications in the structure of the organization, bearing in mind the finest probable manner of handling the business collection and human possessions. An investigation is commenced with the financial assets and broad-spectrum corporation possessions as well as product expansion founded on the gaining of innovative understanding (Augustin, 2011). Consequently, the document recommends designing the impression of strategic alteration in operational administration, and scrutinizes any global plans for the firm. Precisely, this analysis offers in depth strategic SWOT analysis of the corporation’s businesses and operations. The firm’s explanation delivers a perfect and impartial opinion of the company’s key strengths and weaknesses and the prospective opportunities and threats. T his will aid to express strategies that supplement the trade by allowing you to comprehend their followers, patrons and competitors better. Introduction Sainsbury was established in 1869 and nowadays functioning in over 1,106 hypermarkets and suitability stores. The company has around 157,000 employees in all over the World. The slogan of the company is that we (the company) place our clients at the heart of the whole thing we fix and have devoted in their stores, their contemporaries and their channels to distribute the greatest likely shopping experience. Their resilient philosophy and values are the part of their uniqueness and essential to their success (Rowley, 2003). Core values The core values of the company are given as: Accomplishment improved every day – the company emphasizes on enlightening its facilities. Countless services drive sales, however, there is a condition that better provision is pointing to higher sales. Discrete accountability team delivery even thou gh teamwork is invigorated, right a distinct in the firm has accountability in the conference service standards. Retain it modest, humble and well-organized services are obtainable (j–Sainsbury, 2013). Admiration for the discrete employee – each discrete worker within the company is appreciated for his extravagance services. The income of the business is intended for dissemination and improvement of the corporation (Yong, James, Kevin, and Donna, 2011,). Strategy The values of the J Sainsbury are the section of their extended term strategy of development. The company is ready to review and reinforce their strategy, in order to create a decent business sense and provision of an actual competitive benefit (Wrigley, 2000). Business Performance The J Sainsbury has had one more efficacious year, outdoing the flea market in what residue a hard trading atmosphere. Their segment of the grocery shop is the uppermost for an era at 16.8% and they are at the moment the UK’s second major grocer ensuing 35 uninterrupted quarters of like for like sales progress. We endure to aid customers Live Well for Less and stared like for like auctions up 1.45 for the 28 weeks up to 28 the September 2013 (Francis, 2011). Business case The J Sainsbury recognizes as true as their values and their 20 x 20 sustainability obligations play an immense part in their accomplishment. They deliver opportunities for the employees to discriminate themselves with client, dealers,

Final Paper - Building a More Just Society Research

Final - Building a More Just Society - Research Paper Example Moreover, the code of ethics was meant to addresses bad governance and malpractices such as corruption. The need for ethics laws came to the attention of the Special Legislative Committee on Integrity and Ethical Standards in the Government several years back. The committee argued that there was a problem with proper ethical standards. This problem was traced to the lack of checks and balances in the various arms of governments and other agencies. The lack of check and balances provided a conducive environment for unjust acts such as bribery, nepotism and misuse of public office. The end result of this was injustice in the society in general. It was therefore prudent to come up with a set of rules to help counter this problem Following the 1970 Watergate scandal, Congress passed the Ethics in Government Act of 1978 (EGA). This act was to restore public confidence in the government officials as well as the political process. The Act ensured that no branch of the government assumes power THAT may allow it to be involved in malpractices such as corruption, nepotism or bribery (Sleight & Mancuso, 2010). In the United States of America, the US constitution recognizes and empowers the police to help in regulating public behavior and maintaining peace and order. Law and order is maintained so as to build a safer, more just, morally upright and healthy community (Sleight & Mancuso, 2010). The Tenth Amendment of the US constitution divides the power of the Federal government and the State government in order to protect the public from any form exploitation from either state or federal government. The constitution gives the law enforcement agencies the duty to serve the public by safeguarding lives and property. This code of ethics is bidding to every Law enforcer in the United States. Furthermore, these agencies usually take an oath of office to protect the innocent from deception, weak from oppression and

The self is a recurring theme in the religions of Asia. Choose three Essay

The self is a recurring theme in the religions of Asia. Choose three of the religious traditions we have discussed and explain how their theories of the self are different from each other - Essay Example & Slingerland, 2006). Buddhism perceives self-concept as the â€Å"no-self† rather than the self-actualization implying that an individual is neither an integral nor an autonomous entity (MascaroÃŒ , 1973). On the other hand, Daoism theory by Chuang-tzu reveals self as the satisfaction felt after harmonizing the surroundings manifested by humility, compassion, respect, and moderation (Zhuangzi & Watson, 2003). Consequently, there exist distinctions in the way the Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism perceive the self-concept, which is a common theme in Asian religions. The three religions portray differing understanding of self-concept implying that they perceive ‘self’ from a different point of view. The concept of self in Buddhism is focused on understanding the ‘self’ in a human being (Ho, 1995). Actualization of oneself in Buddhism is characterized by the process of pursuing acts such as helping others to achieve happiness within an individual. From the broad view of Buddhism, ‘self’ is portrayed as the religion advocate for the process in which individuals realize when they become aware of the actions as well as change that need to be done to achieve enlightenment. MascaroÃŒ  (1973) in his translation of Dhammapada says, â€Å"For a person forced on by his thinking, fierce in his passion†¦He’s the one who tightens the bond† (348*). In Confucianism, the theme emphasizes on understanding relationships of each other. It refers to the Golden rule as the base of establishing self in an ind ividual, which considers the actions that an individual does to others should be similar to the actions that she/he would do to himself/herself. Conversely, Daoism perceives self as the endeavor to improve and understand the environment surrounding human beings (Zhuangzi & Watson, 2003). This indicates that a major aspect in developing the theme of self in Daoism is respect to the environment and ensuring its

What is Globalisation How does it affect the multinational enterprises Essay

What is Globalisation How does it affect the multinational enterprises Explain taking an example of any one multinational enterprise of your choice - Essay Example lity of capital across countries that enables firms to relocate and invest overseas and repatriate their profits, while the development of derivatives and other complex financial products have enabled the rapid growth of global credit markets. Moreover, as trade increasingly becomes freer with economic liberalization after the fall of Communism, which has increased the rate of imports and exports between industrialized and emerging economies. Finally, the growth of multinational companies and brands like Apple has also driven the process of globalization (Dunning, 2012: p14). This paper will discuss globalization and its effects on multinationals with Apple being a case study in the latter discussion. Globalization refers to the process through which the world is increasingly becoming interconnected due to a massive increase in cultural and trade exchange (Dunning, 2012: p33). In turn, this process has increased services and goods production with the largest companies today being multinationals, rather than national firms. Although this process has been occurring for centuries, its pace has increased dramatically over the last fifty years. This has been as a result of reduced differences between different economies, leading to increased trade between and within different countries. One important aspect of globalization is that of integration where, while economies in the past were mostly ‘self-contained’ and export and imports occurred almost co-incidentally, economies today are more closely dependent on one another for markets and raw material (Dunning, 2012: p34). Today, when one economy, like Japan, is in recession, many other economies also suffer the effects of recession. The process of globalization has been greatly influenced by improved transportation with transportation costs for MNCs like Apple decreasing, specifically as larger cargo ships and planes can transport more products (Rugman, 2014: p28). Moreover, economies of scale have led to a

Support Services and Mainstream Schools Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Support Services and Mainstream Schools - Essay Example This isolation needs to be overcome if LEAs are to make progress with their main challenge, which is to raise educational standards. Strategies to aid this improvement include Educational Development Plans, LEA inspections and Best Value (Ainscow et al., 1999). The guidance in the code states that all children with SEN should be enabled to reach their full potential, to be fully included in their school communities, and be enabled to make a successful transition to adult life. For most, the mainstream school setting is suitable to help them to attain all of these goals, and it is only in severe cases that they would be better helped in a specialist school setting. The code recommends that schools take an approach in which the match the provision of specialist support to the individual child's SEN (DfES, 2001). Support services must work to the Code of Practice for SEN, but they go about doing this is in different ways, using various methods to achieve the goals laid out in the Code. There is some debate as to how successful these support services are at doing that, and much discussion as to what makes some services more successful than others. Ainscow et al. Ainscow et al. (1999) found in their study conducted on various stakeholders, that the availability of support teams was seen as being important to the effective practice of inclusion. However even though some of the LEAs which were surveyed thought that classroom assistants were central to gaining inclusion, others speculated that they in fact caused a new degree of segregation. An Ofsted report in 2005 found also that support and outreach services were successful in promoting inclusion and improving performance of pupils with special educational needs, and they found that this was because in the most effective support services, all staff were fully committed to inclusion, which came across in their work. The members of the support service which they found most useful were those who brought new knowledge or skills that were not already present in the school. A previous Ofsted report (2004) on a limited number of LEAs across the country found that some of the most useful Support services were those that provided training to raise staff awareness of SENs and to give training on pupils' personal and social development. Leeds City Council Leeds City Council is one area in which the mainstream schools successfully utilise support services to ensure that the education provision lives up to the SEN Code of Practice. The SEN and Inclusion Support Services (SENISS) is part of Education Leeds, who work with Leeds City Council to supply Support services to the schools within the Leeds and surrounding areas. As with all support services, their aims are to remove barriers to learning and inclusion, and promote the achievement of pupils with SEN. They go about doing this by providing support on two levels: on the school-based level, and on the individual level of each pupil. The service also tries to enhance the capacity of the school to become self-managing in terms of SEN, by providing training on legislation and SEN policy and issues. The service also

Strengthening Africa Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Strengthening Africa - Essay Example Professor Frank Flatters from the Department of Economics of Queen's University, Canada, argues in favor of national policymaking as follows: "There are many tracks for pursuing trade policies aimed at effective global participation, the most important of which are the multilateral WTO processes, regional arrangements, and special bilateral or plurilateral preferential agreements. For each of these avenues, however, the key to success is domestic policies." (Flatters, 2003). In this context, the Ministry of Trade and Development of Ethiopia has to face the fact of taking drastic measures at a national level in order to be more competitive both locally and globally. ILMI aims at a widespread use of Information and Communications Technologies as well as assuming a new kind of leadership and management all across the nation taking as examples new paradigms for change. Globalization is a very challenging endeavor, especially for a very poor country. It seems paradoxical to recommend the implementation of Information and Communication Technologies to one of the least developed countries in the world, but ICT are unavoidable in order to achieve a successful integration. With the creation of ILMI there will be real benefits in relation to international trade and national companies will be much more competitive. E-Commerce and Outsourcing will be available to a wider range of individuals. A telecommuting work force will be created through the use of ICT enhanced with new ways of leadership and management. Ethiopia's Ministry of Trade and Development has to take advantage of the globalization efforts of many international organizations and developed countries in favor of the least developed countries. 3.- Globalization and Development in Africa. The United Nations have taken the initiative of helping the least developed countries through the Millennium Development Goals. These goals are the following: Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women Goal 4: Reduce child mortality Goal 5: Improve maternal health Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development (United Nations, 2000). The UN Millennium Project is clear about the issue of underdevelopment: "Whatever one's motivation for attacking the crisis of extreme poverty -human rights, religious values, security, fiscal prudence, ideology- the solutions are the same. All that is needed is action." (UN Millennium Project, 2005). In this context, the UN Millennium Project has suggested ten key recommendations: "1.- Developing country governments should

Navigating to Life's Distant Shores Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Navigating to Life's Distant Shores - Essay Example We either make it or we don't. We know of our success by the fact that we have arrived. We have fulfilled our goal and have set foot upon the next stepping-stone of our voyage. Our footing must be certain and secure, as a small error can cause us to lose our footing and cast us out among the grave uncertainties that lie just outside our plotted path. Planning our passage through the developmental stages of life has all the euphoric possibilities and rewards of celestial navigation; it requires skill, tools and planning, and a certain sense of where we currently are. Nothing can bring us greater elation than reaching a carefully planned goal that we have struggled to achieve, while challenging the obstacles and roadblocks that impeded our path. Getting from high school to college is very much like sailing the open seas without the security of the sight of land. It requires the skill that we have gained over our too few years, as we have no way to know what the destination will be like until we arrive. Yet, by being prepared we can remove much of the uncertainty and take much of the destination that we expect to find with us. Our task is to simply find the destination within ourselves. Gerrard states that, "Hardly anything on earth is as exhilarating as sailing into a new harbor at sunrise after a nighttime passage offshore across open water" (248). As we prepare our journey into our future, we must carefully navigate our culture, society, peer pressure, and traditions, often alone and in the dark of night. The exhilaration of reaching our destin ation will be ours alone, and only we have the skill to successfully find our unique path to the dawning of a new opportunity. Putting this skill to work will require the careful management of the tools that will we need to be able to formulate a workable plan, as we move across the uncharted waters of growth. For the high school student making their journey to college, this planning began years earlier as they begin to collect the tools of academics. While the ocean navigator has the hardware of a compass, sextant, and chronometer the student will carry tools that are more abstract in nature, but no less concrete. The student will need the skill of critical thinking. Have they learned to question, analyze, and criticize, without emotion or malice Have they been properly tempered in the cauldron of education to accept that knowledge may be "contingent, ambiguous, and tentative" (Bean 18) Has their imagination learned to make a leap and connect two seemingly unconnected dots Gerard speaks of these tools as possessing "a magical quality and were treated with the reverent care usually reserved for sacred relics " (258). The navigator cares for his tools by maintaining them in "elaborately carved and inlaid wooden boxes", as a way to highlight their status and importance. The academician cares for their tools by constant use, as if oiling and cleaning them daily to keep them ready for use on a moments notice. Just as the navigator hears the sound of the waves and the smell of the seas to alert them if they have gone off course, the academic will hear the conversations, the media, and the world around them to sense if they are still on solid ground and in line with their destination. Plotting a course to our next destination along life's journey requires that we have a secure sense of where we are starting from, and where we

COMBATING COMPASSION FATIGUE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

COMBATING COMPASSION FATIGUE - Essay Example If the connection is prolonged, the practitioner develops compassion fatigue. Yoder (2010) describes compassion fatigue as a vice that minimizes the efficiency of the practitioner due to their increased connection with their duties. Moreover, compassion fatigue develops a nature in a practitioner that tends to ignore the requirements of the patient. The practitioner is overburdened with emotional and spiritual connections to a point that they do not feel the need to perform exemplarily in their position. 16% – 85% of health care workers in different fields suffer from compassion fatigue (Yoder, 2010). This describes the extent of the crisis in the industry. This paper will provide signs that depict signs of compassion fatigue. In addition, I will analyze the problems that may be caused and aid that may relieve caregivers. There are numerous signs that may depict compassion fatigue in a caregiver. Firstly, the performance of the practitioner deteriorates significantly. This is because the focus of the caregiver is shifted to address their emotional problems. Additionally, the caregiver does not concentrate on their work. This decreases their effectiveness to perform. Apart from physical signs, caregiver may suffer from psychological effects. For instance, they find it difficult to stop thinking about their patients and job. Walton & Alvarez (2010) is of the assumption that a caregiver should be able to have a life beyond their job description. A failure to achieve this depicts compassion fatigue. In other occasion, the caregiver becomes obsessed with their patients. In a worst case, of compassion fatigue, the caregiver has trouble sleeping. This is caused by memories and over thinking about their job and patients. Another sign is that the caregiver does not have the energy and will to work. In addition, they become less satisfied with their work. This

HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry Essay Example for Free

HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry Essay The International Journal of Human Resource Management 9:1 February 1998 HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry: A comparative study of Australia and Singapore Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown Abstract This study explores the perceptions of HR managers on the strategic management of labour tumover in a selection of large hotels in Australia and Singapore, The main argument is that the effects of labour tumover can be mitigated with strategically managed human resources through the four key HR activities. The hotel industries in both Singapore and Australia revealed a comparable range of HR policies and practices being adopted, with an explicit recognition of the contribution an organizations human resources have on the bottom-line. There was a clear convergence towards minimizing tumover primarily through the recruitment, selection and induction processes. This was despite fundamental social, economic and labour differences between Singapore and Australia, Keywords Human resources, HR functions, labour tumover, hotel industry Introduction In recent years, there has been widening recognition that human resource management (HRM) strategies impact on an organizations perfomiance and bottom-line results, contributing to overall effectiveness (Nankervis and Debrah, 1995). Particularly in the service industry, the effective utilization of human resources can give an organization its competitive edge (Schneider and Bowen, 1993). This has led to an increased interdependency of corporate strategy with human resource management (HRM), By effectively linking HRM with organizational objectives and needs, human resources can be recruited, developed, motivated and retained towards gaining a competitive advantage, i.e. strategic HRM. In this unique industry, that essentially comprises both a production and a service aspect, both the creation and the rendering of services from the hotel to the customer are primarily achieved through the employee, i.e. the hotels representative. Therefore, the people essentially represent the industry (Lewis, 1989; Thompson and Abbott, 1990; Schneider and Bowen, 1993). The success of this industry is therefore dependent on the calibre of its employees and how effectively they are managed in order that they help the organization achieve its objectives (Nankervis and Debrah, 1995; Berger and Ghei, 1995). It is essential that the hotel industry develop efficient HRM practices and policies that enable them to recruit, select and retain competent employees who contribute to the achievement of their objectives. However, the hotel industry is constantly plagued with high staff tumover levels, resulting in high personnel costs incurred because of recruiting and training new replacements (Hom and Griffeth, 1995). With few staff staying longer than five years 0985-5192  © Routledge 1998 HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry 137 (BTR, 1990, cited in Nankervis, 1990), tumover contributes significantly to labour costs through high replacement costs (Riley, 1991a). With a skilled labour force needed in the trade and hotels increasingly providing the required training, premature tumover may waste a hotels sizeable investment in employee development (Beckert and Walsh, 1991; Hom and Griffeth, 1995). Many tumover studies have focused on other industry causes and effects. To date, however, comprehensive and substantial studies have not been conducted to determine the direct and indirect causes of tumover in the hotel industry, although some hotels have undertaken individual tumover analyses to address this issue (Nankervis, 1991; Debrah, 1994). This could be attributed to the fact that, even though employee tumover has financial consequences, the problem is often ignored because the costs are indirect and hidden (Donelly, cited in Hiemstra, 1990). Furthermore, many hotels may consider it simply part of doing business in this industry. This paper outlines some recent research which examined the impact of HR policies and practices in the respective hotel industries on labour tumover, specifically through the processes of (1) recruitment and selection, (2) orientation and socialization, (3) training and development, (4) performance management and (5) remuneration. The study focused on a selection of medium to large hotels in Singapore and Australia. Labour turnover and the hotel industry Denvir and McMahon (1992: 143) defined labour tumover as the movement of people into and out of employment within an organization. It can be voluntary or involuntary. Correspondingly, on the basis that people leave an organization for a multitude of reasons that may not be management-related, Eade (1993) further categorizes tumover into controllable and unavoidable tumover. For the purpose of this study, the focus was on voluntary and controllable tumover. Tumover in the hospitality industry has been shown to be unacceptably high (Kennedy and Berger, 1994), averaging up to 200 or 300 per cent per annum (Woods, 1992; Tanke, 1990; Boella, 1988; Wheelhouse, 1989), although substantial variations exist between different establishments. The literature has so far identified factors that impact on tumover rates as orientation and socialization processes (Kennedy and Berger, 1994; Woods, 1992); ad hoc recruitment and selection procedures (Bonn and Forbringer, 1992; Woods and Macaulay, 1989; Wagner, 1991; Wheelhouse, 1989); discrimination at the workplace (Antolik, 1993); training and development opportunities (Hogan, 1992; Hiemstra, 1990; Conrade et al., 1994); management styles (LeeRoss, 1993; Boella, 1988; Wheelhouse, 1989; Rowden, 1995; Woods and Macaulay, 1989); organizational commitment (Denvir and McMahon, 1992); competition and organizational culture (Woods and Macaulay, 1989); labour shortage (Debrah, 1994; Woods, 1992); stress and bumout (Vallen, 1993; Woods, 1992; Hom and Griffeth, 1995); the seasonal nature of the industry (Boella, 1988; Denvir and McMahon, 1992); and job dissatisfaction (Bonn and Forbringer, 1992; Hom and Griffeth, 1995; Wheelhouse, 1989). Relatedly, Denvir and McMahon suggested that labour tumover is not an isolated occurrence, where multi-dimensional aspects include low staff morale, substandard work performance and absenteeism (1992: 143). Each incident of employee tumover is estimated to cost up to $2500 in direct costs and $1600 in indirect costs (Hogan, 1992). However, the pervasive impacts of labour tumover on a hotels bottom line can be classified into two categories: (1) direct expenditure and (2) intangible costs. 138 Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown Direct impacts are essentially financial consequences that include administrative costs as a result of increased recruitment and training expenditure of new employees (Woods and Macaulay, 1989; Boelia, 1988; Woods, 1992; Riley, 1991a; Mullins, 1995; Mercer, 1988). The indirect consequences of tumover include productivity losses due to unfamiliarity of the workplace, poor service quality as a result of insufficient manpower (Denvir and McMahon, 1992; Riley, 1991a; Wheelhouse, 1989), compromised standards and low morale due to the constant departures of workmates; which are in tum integrally damaging to the hotels reputation (Woods and Macaulay, 1989; Riley, 1991a; Mullins, 1995) because dissatisfaction in the employee will ultimately lead to the dissatisfaction of the customer (Lewis, 1989; Boelia, 1988; Woods, 1992). Samuel (1969, cited in Denvir and McMahon, 1992: 144) summarized this when he stated that discontinuity in employment discourages people from entering the industry and encourages others to leave i t . . . [preventing] continuing relationships between employers and employees and so inhibits the growth of mutual responsibility. It involves heavy administration costs and a substantial loss of productivity through the breaking up of teams who are used to working together. However, Mount argues that labour tumover within an organization may not necessarily be detrimental. Rather, an organization thats choosing to thrive and grow must expect a higher tumover rate than companies that settle for the status quo . . . [where] more talented and experienced people replace those that are leaving, and the new workers take the organization to the next level (1995: 109). Price found that the hotel industry tended to live with high levels of labour tumover and rely on the extemal labour market to fill vacancies (1994: 47). However, high labour tumover cannot be excused as an inherent characteristic feature of the hotel industry (Mullins, 1995). Mullins suggested that an organization can theoretically influence tumover by various intervention processes (1995: 185) that include placement and orientation, job performance and training and development. Denvir and McMahon (1992: 146) further argued that individual hotels experience different levels of labour tumover, thereby confirming the view that tumover is partly within the control of management, and conflicts with the widespread impression that tumover is high and uniform throughout the industry, and hence an uncontrollable characteristic of the trade. This might therefore suggest that tumover is, in effect, manageable through effective and strategic human resource practices. Based on a recent pilot study undertaken by one of the authors (Cheng, 1996), the hotel industries would be perceived to have recognized the adverse effects of labour tumover (Debrah, 1994; Nankervis, 1993b) through the adoption of strategic human resource management practices. Specifically, five variables that will be considered are: (1) recruitment and selection; (2) orientation and socialization; (3) training and development; (4) performance management; and (5) remuneration. Central to all these process es [however,] is the critical activity of recmitment and selection practices (Mullins, 1995: 185). There have been numerous studies conducted on labour tumover that have focused on other industries. These may not be applicable due to the unique features of the hotel industry, as discussed earlier. For example, the organizational structure of the hotel may be a major determinant in influencing labour tumover, as compared to other industries. Riley (1991a: 18, 1991b: 237) estimates that operative and unskilled staff comprise up to 64 per cent of the entire staff population. This might therefore indicate limited HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry 139 promotional and developmental opportunities for lower-level employees, resulting in a movement of staff out of that organization to one that provides better career options. Labour turnover in hotels in Singapore and Australia Labour tumover in the Australian and Singaporean hotel industries has not been substantially researched and documented. This is despite the significant contributions made by the tourism industries in both countries to the respective economies. Tourism is arguably the nations largest single export earner in Australia (EIU, 1994b), with Singapores tourism correspondingly generating a surplus on its balance of payments travel account of around S$5 billion per year in recent years (EIU, 1994a). Employment growth in the hotel industry in both Singapore and Australia has been significant during the past decade (Table 1). A number of new large hotels have opened in both countries, creating significant job opportunities. In Singapore, this has been in a context of generally tight labour markets which has forced hotels into employing more part-time staff (Debrah, 1994). Correspondingly, in Australia, many of the jobs which have been created by the growth in the industry have also been part time, although not due to labour shortages. A survey of the Australian industry in 1991 (KPMG Peat Marwick Management, 1991) indicated a relatively plentiful supply of employees to the industry, although it noted that a general economic downturn in the industry was apparent at the time. Comparatively, surveys of the Singapore labour situation indicated significant shortages of labour in the industry (Debrah, 1994) The figures in Table 2 indicate that the hotel sector in Australia employs a much higher proportion of part timers than that in Singapore. Many jobs,  such as waiting Table 1 Growth in employment in the hotel industry Singapore Australia Year No. of employees Year No of employees 1980 1987 1992 38,620 54,412 74,136 1983 1986 1993 17,617 22,001 29,770 Source: Singapore, Department of Statistics, Economic Surveys Series, Hotels and Catering. ABS Cat No 8674 Table 2 Work-force composition Futl time Status Part time Age profile 70% of employees 35% of employees Australia 43,766 30,370(41%) 35 yrs 25 years Singapore 25,719 3,958(15%) 40 yrs 25 yrs Source: ABS Labour Force Australia, May 1991, Cat No 6203.0, ABS Cat No 8674: STPB Singapore Tourism and Promotion Board 1992 Survey of Tourism Manpower Deployment in Singapore; Economic Surveys Series, Hotels and Catering 1993; Department of Statistics 1995 140 Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown Table 3 Turnover rates in the hotel industry per annum Australia Singapore 45% 42% Source: Callus et al, 1991; 1995 Singapore Yearbook of Labour Statistics, Ministry of Labour (1991 figures) staff, kitchen hands and bar staff, are seen as transient jobs by young people such as students, due mainly to relatively few skill barriers and ease of entry. The data in Table 2 also show that the hotel labour force in both countries is relatively youthful. An implication of these statistics is that tumover in the hotel industry is partly due to the casual employment characteristics of the labour force, particularly in Australia. In Singapore, the relatively long period of buoyant labour market conditions may have led to job hopping. The tumover rates for the hotel and recreation industries is generally three times greater than the average for other industry groups in Australia (Callus et al., 1991), while in Singapore it is about average among various occupational groups (Singapore Ministry of Labour, 1995). However, these industry figures do disguise tumover rates at individual establishments which can vary considerably, as shown in the sample of hotels for this study. For Australia, the highest tumover rates are for front-line and service employees where the rate averages 43 per cent. Tumover is lower in larger hotels (KPMG Peat Marwick Management, 1991) and varies slightly according to gender, with annual tumover rates averaging 45 per cent for males and 38 per cent for females. The paucity of documented research and studies is evident through the limited amount and quality of material in this area. Studies on labour tumaround and retention have primarily focused on the UK and US hospitality industries (Woods and Macaulay, 1989; Bonn and Forbringer, 1992; Hogan, 1992; Alfus, 1992; Feiertag, 1993; Kennedy and Berger, 1994; Denvir and McMahon, 1992). The exception is Debrahs (1994) study of operative staff in Singapores hotel industry in view of environmental influences. Research design The study adopted a qualitative approach, employing a comparative case-study methodology towards researching the Australian and Singaporean hotel industries HR programmes on tumover. Commonly, qualitative research is where the study is done in its natural settings in an attempt to interpret phenomena through the meanings associated with them. Correspondingly, this research focuses on the phenomenon of labour tumover in the hotel industry, interpreted through the perceptions of HR managers within that trade. This qualitative approach also involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials, e.g. grounded theory procedure, surveys, observations, etc. (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994). Specifically, a personal interview, examination of relevant documents and multi-case study method were used for data collection and data analysis, respectively. The sample size for the study was six hotels in each country. They were medium-tolarge hotels, managed either as part of a consortium, an intemational chain, or as HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry 141 individual properties. An exploration of the views of HR managers, or managers responsible for the HR function, on the potential impact of HR strategies on managing labour turnover within their organizations was sought. In some cases follow-up telephone interviews were held with relevant HR personnel to clarify matters raised in the initial personal interviews. The targeted respondents were considered suitable on the premise that the participants, all senior managers, were primarily responsible for the development, formulation and implementation of key HR processes and strategies in relation to managing labour tumover, and would therefore have the required knowledge of HRM practices and business strategies (Ragburam  and Arvey, 1994). Consequently, this research basically reflects the perspectives and perceptions of these participants. The small sample size of twelve, typical of a study of this qualitative nature (Gay and Diehl, 1992), was considered appropriate, offering the opportunity to glimpse the complicated operations, character and culture of the hotel industry. In qualitative research, the sample tends to be small and purposeful, where the purpose lies in selecting information-rich cases for study in depth (Patton, 1990: 169). The subject population was pre-selected based on the primary criteria of size and rating of the hotel, i.e. at least 250 rooms and a minimum rating of four stars. However, the final sample was selected and determined on the basis of accessibility to the hotels and their targeted respondents. The sample for the Australian study came from the state of Westem Australia. Tumover rates in individual hotels ranged from 26 to 47 per cent per annum for Australia. Corresponding data for Singapore ranged from 48 to 120 per cent, although the highest tumover rate was for a new property which had only recently opened. Findings An equal sample size of six hotels was studied in each country. Although the properties in Singapore were generally larger in size and staff than in Australia i.e. maximum staff and rooms at 1,300 and 1,200 respectively in the fomier country, compared with 440 and 417 respectively in the latter human resource strategies employed in both cultures were largely similar. However, due to the different labour markets of the two industries, there were inherent differences in the importance and priorities placed on HR strategies, with regard to controlling and minimizing labour tumover. These are discussed below. Recruitment and selection Hiring practices employed by the hotels in both countries can be seen as having progressed from the adoption of purely traditional (advertising, walk-ins, selection interviews, reference checking, etc.) to more strategic approaches (networking, intemal labour market, behavioural interviewing, targeted selection, etc.) (Nankervis and Debrah, 1995; Nankervis, 1993b). This has primarily been influenced by changing labour markets, as well as the clear recognition that mitigating labour tumover begins with the hiring function, specifically the selection process. This is consistent with current literature that highlights selection as the predominant variable impacting on eventual tumover rates (Hom and Griffeth, 1995; Boles et al., 1995; Mercer, 1988; Dunn, 1995; Woods and Macauley, 1989), albeit recmitment and selection is generally considered an integrated function (MuUins, 1995; Croney, 1988; Nankervis, 1993b). 142 Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown This progress seems to be in part due to the general realization that people ultimately represent the crux of the industry, where they are the product and the providers of service (Nankervis and Debrah, 1995; Mullins, 1995; Thompson and Abbott, 1990; Lewis, 1989; Schneider and Bowen, 1993; Berger and Ghei, 1995). Hence, the ability to hire and retain the right kind of people to fit the organization, and give the organization a competitive edge (Schneider and Bowen, 1993) begins primarily with the selection process (Hom and Griffeth, 1995; Boles et al. 1995; Eade, 1993; Mercer, 1988; Dunn, 1995). There is evidence that hotels in both countries draw from a wide range of recruitment sources both intemal and extemal. Hotels in Australia and Singapore tend to place greater reliance on recmiting from an intemal labour market of current employees within the establishment and from other hotels which are part of the chain within the same ownership. Although this was perceived to be more evident in the Australian environment, this was inclusive of promotions as well as transfers of casual and parttime staff. There was also the consideration that Singapore had a more stable labour force of full and part-time employees, while the Australian hotel industry tends to rely on a higher proportion of casuals in employment, thereby implicitly contributing to tumover levels to a greater degree. However, in both instances, the use of this intemal labour source was predominantly restricted to supervisory positions and above, usually associated with a career development plan. Such efforts to develop career paths would assist in overcoming a major reason given for tumover in the industry in Australia  as identified in a survey (KPMG Peat Marwick Management, 1991). None the less, this effort has resulted in the per centage of managerial promotions, in at least one hotel each, as high as 85 per cent in Singapore and 95 per cent in Australia. Intemal allocative strategies are therefore encouraged where extemal recmiting costs can be reduced because, for example, current staff do not require re-training or acculturation into the organization; i.e. the direct costs of tumover (Woods and Macauley, 1989; Boella, 1988; Woods, 1992; Mullins, 1995; Mercer, 1988). As such, this can be perceived directly to drive staff tumover levels down (Simms et al. 1988; Debrah, 1994) through increas ed promotional and career opportunities (Woods and Macauley, 1989). Extemal sources of new recmits included: databases of previous applicants, unsolicited applicants, newspaper advertising, employee referrals, recmitment consultants, industrial attachments and networks with associates in the industry. Hotels in Singapore seem to be more resourceful in attracting new people with employee referrals becoming increasingly popular, where current employees are usually offered incentives for a new staff member employed on their recommendation. Although there is no scientific evidence to support this theory, hoteliers argue the general principle on the basis that birds of a feather flock together; that is, referred potential candidates would be expected to be of similar calibre, personality and behavioural qualities to the referrer since they are friends or family. This reduces the cost of extemal sourcing, as well as a diminished probability of tumover occurring through the yielding of more reliable and committed employees (Debrah, 1994). Networking is also more prevalent in Singapore than in Australia. Despite it being regarded as a form of people-poaching, it is considered common practice in Singapore. Hoteliers in Australia, on the other hand, generally do not support this mode of recmitment as it is considered there, to some degree, unethical and generally not very nice. Both countries, however, attributed their respective stances to the small but close-knit fratemity of the hotel trade. HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry 143 To combat the potential difficulties of building a full-time committed work-force in Singapore, Debrah (1994) in his earlier research, pointed to the use of part-time staff. Benefits that accme through employing regular part timers include increased flexibility in scheduling, thereby reducing the impact of tumover (Greengard, 1995), as well as lower wage outlays (Inman and Enz, 1995). Although this practice is prevalent in the Australian hotel industry, where sometimes up to half of the total employee population are part timers or casuals, part timers are usually hired on a needs basis and predominantly in the food and beverage (FB) or banqueting departments in Singapore (Debrah, 1994). Hotels in Australia are typically seen by young people as a source of casual employment due to ease of entry. A problem increasingly faced by Singaporean hotels due to rising educational standards and employee expectations is the shortage of applicants for the less desirable shift-work positions mainly at the operative level. One hotel, at least, has attempted to combat this through the hiring of foreign labour, mainly from Malaysia. While interviews remain a core selection device, there is an increased emphasis placed on the behavioural aspects of a potential candidate in both countries, where selection tools are used to assist in determining a persons personality, attitude and character in relation to the specifications that a position may require. It was felt that experience and expertise, although valuable, could be gained from training and development while attitude and personality were more important in new recmits in attempting to fit employees into a particular organizational culture. Singapore, however, has a more dominant use of the behavioural interview than Australia, where attitude is perceived to be more important than experience. This is assessed essentially through structured, oral employment tests given to potential candidates in the course of the interview. Berger and Ghei (1995) further argue that this method is more effective in the selection of new hires than more commonly practised approaches, e.g. reference checking, which the Australian hotel industry  utilizes extensively, biodata through weighted application blanks, etc. However, a sample of employment tests from a couple of respondents suggests that the behavioural interviews conducted in the Singapore hotel industry have a primary focus on the biodat a of a potential candidate. Current literature also supports a higher correlation between biodata and the eventual retention of that person (Dickenson and Ineson, 1993; Mitchell, 1989; Ineson and Brown, 1992) according to the past behaviours and reactions, attitudes, interests, etc. Reference checking was advocated by Dunn (1995) as a proactive and aggressive way of reducing tumover and maintaining a higher work-force quality. Despite obvious disadvantages like potential litigation consequences, e.g. defamation, negligent hiring suits (Dunn, 1995), the Australian lodging trade diligently adopts this approach when employing. There was significantly less importance placed on this method of selection, as apparent through its lack of use, by Singaporean hoteliers. Industrial placement, however, is a common practice in both countries. Although generally regarded as a labour source, industrial placement (referred to as work attachment in Singapore) has not been maximally utilized as a selection tool in either Australia or Singapore. Despite some evidence of it occurring, the potential benefits of effectively utilizing this practice as a selection tool are not being fully realized; for example, that applicants would ah-eady be familiar with the organization (Leslie, 19 91), thus having a realistic preview (Woods and Macauley, 1989), thereby increasing the retention probability for that person (Hom and Griffeth, 1995). At the 144 Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown same time, the applicant would already be trained in their area of operations, thereby directly and positively impacting on recmitment and training costs. The labour-scarce situation afflicting the Singapore hotel trade is, to a large extent, attributed as the major factor influencing modifications in local hiring practices, which supports earlier research (Debrah, 1994: Nankervis and Debrah, 1995). This is especially so in relation to the recmitment sources the industry approaches in seeking new  hires. However, some of these approaches may seem to exacerbate, rather than mitigate, labour tumover despite an acknowledgement of their detrimental effects. For example, networking as a labour source would probably indicate recmiting a new hire from another hotel. This would inevitably mean filling a position in one property at the expense of increased tumover in another. On the other hand, Australia has been comparatively slow in adopting more innovative methods of recmitment and selection, although there is an indication of a move towards a more strategic direction. Although acknowledged as an issue, tumover is not given priority consideration when hiring even though there is a recognized need for a match between the organizations values and the potential employee. Rather, a reduction in labour tumover is essentially considered an incidental benefit to the meeting of organizational and operational objectives. In summary, hotels in both countries are placing more emphasis on recmitment and selection practices in an effort to reduce the potential for labour tumover. Variations exist where Singapore places more emphasis on behavioural interviews, employee referrals and networking, while Australian hotels emphasize reference checks and assessing attitudes in the employment interview. Australian hotels also tend to use more casual employees than their Singaporean counterparts. Orientation and socialization Induction sessions in hotels of both countries were conducted regularly upon the employment of a new recmit, consistent with Mullins (1995) suggestion that orientation is basically a natural extension of the recmitment and selection function. Hotels in both Singapore and Australia were seen to conduct both general and departmental orientation (St. John, 1980; Kennedy and Berger, 1994; Eade, 1993) in order to provide overall hotel information, as well as specific job details. General orientation for new employees in Singaporean hotels ranges from two hours to 90 days, while in Australia between two hours and one and a half days is the norm. The content of these sessions is comparable and includes hotel cultures, employee handbook, mles and regulations, health and safety procedures, salary details and so on. More specific orientation is the responsibility of the employing department. The importance of this function in facilitating and sustaining the long-term retention of employees was perceived to be recognized by all respondents. It was basically a matter of familiarizing new employees with the daily operational requirements and culture of the organization (Mullins, 1995; Eade, 1993; Thompson and Abbott, 1990); that is, acculturating them into the organization in order to align their individual goals with that of the hotel. To encourage this assimilation, Singapore hoteliers tend to be more systematic in the orientation process and usually conduct interim and follow-up sessions to provide employees an opportunity for feedback (Eade, 1993) as well as to evaluate their progress (Day, 1988). These sessions were usually related to a probationary employment condition to which newcomers are subjected (Thompson and Abbott, 1990) in an HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry 145 effort to further ensure a person-position match for both the organization and employee. This practice, however, was more evident in Singapore (Nankervis and Debrah, 1995), since only two hotels in Australia had this system in place. For purposes of inducting and eventually training new employees, some hotels in Singapore have in place a buddy system where new employees are matched with seasoned, experienced staff members who are responsible for their training. This concept has been supported as providing new hires with the guidance that may be needed in training and providing answers (Eade, 1993; Day, 1988), particularly where there is a case of information overload, that is, too much information being disseminated within that short span of time. Despite the potential benefits of this practice, however, only one Australian hotel explicitly suggested the availability of such a system, but for specified lower-level positions only. Some of the available literature suggests that existing employees could, in effect, also reap positive experiences through an organizations induction  of new employees. This is based on the assumption that current staff would also have to adjust to changes within an organization, as, for example, to a new colleague (Sutton and Reis Louis, 1987; Day, 1988). Perhaps this lack of consideration of current staff might, to some extent, account for labour tumover that occurs, not within the confines of the induction [or] recruitment crisis (Thompson and Abbott, 1990; Mullins, 1995), but among seasoned employees who may have been conveniently overlooked in relation to organizational modifications. One way of potentially combating this problem is to conduct re-orientation programmes for staff. Deemed important by both the Singapore and Australian hotel industry, these sessions take into account old employees, e.g. people who have been with the hotel since its founding, sometimes up to twenty five years. The primary rationale is to reiterate organizational philosophies and values or to communicate recent or planned changes in a hotels culture or structure (Martin and Van Eck Peluchette, 1989). Despite the potential benefits, such sessions are only conducted by all Australian hoteliers, with only one hotel in Singapore administering annual corporate reorientations for seasoned employees. This is notwithstanding the age of some of the Singapore hotels, whose history may go as far back as twenty five years. Generally, induction is still regarded as exerting a significant and direct impact on the successful retention of employees. This relates to the consistency of products and services provided by the hotel industry primarily through its human resources (Denvir and McMahon, 1992). Therefore, orientation and socialization essentially serve the hotel industries by apprising newcomers of, acculturating and gelling them into to the organization, thereby minimizing the probability, and eliminating a potentially major cause, of labour tumover such that there is a stable foundation from which the hotel can operate. Training and development There is a clear recognition in both countries of the strategic contribution made by training to the retention of staff that the willingness to invest in an organizations people leads to an increase in their commitment and job satisfaction, leading to a reduction in staff tumover (Woods and Macaulay,  1989; Conrade et al., 1994). Training needs analyses are generally carried out by the hotels in both countries, although Singaporean hoteliers were perceived to be more systematic in establishing potential training requirements. There is a greater emphasis on analysing guest 146 Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown comment cards in the Australian hotel trade, whereas only two Singaporean properties explicitly take customer comments into account when determining training needs. One Australian hotel, on the other hand, basically depends on consultation sessions among staff to gain infonnation and feedback on potential gaps in employee training and development. Despite these systems of determination, only one hotel in each country had a training directory, with the remaining properties generally having a list that employees could be referred to. To some degree, this may reflect Conrade et al.s (1994) suggestion that, despite the importance and significance training is accorded within the industry, the reality of the availability of such planned, quality training programmes within hotels is limited. The content of training and development programmes was relatively similar in Singapore and Australia and included: language courses, quality management, health, stress handling and telephone etiquette. Job-related skills were also an important component of training. Much of this training is done in-house, although for managerial and supervisory employees extemal sources are usually utilized. None the less, there was an emphasis on the involvement of line employees in the administration of the training function. The Singapore lodging trade expressed this delegation of responsibility through the constant interaction between supervisor and employee (St. John, 1980; Day, 1988), whereas the Australian hotels validated this practice based on the training requirements of the industry, e.g. on-the-job training and as a control mechanism in training effectiveness (Day, 1988). This argument also aligns itself with Tysons (1995) suggestion that the HRM function will become more functional throu gh its integration with line management. Developmental opportunities were perceived to be linked to the training function in the industries of both countries. Employees are primarily trained to the requirements of their job, with a secondary focus on fulfilling their individual needs that is usually required to be in alignment with the operational needs of the hotel (Tracey and Tews, 1995; Walker, 1992; Mabey and Salaman, 1995). This again relates, to a degree, to the earlier argument, put forward with regard to the willingness to invest in people, that a workers need for growth and leaming can be met with a sense of morale and commitment (Mullins, 1995). Hotels in both cultures provide developmental opportunities for employees, generally incorporating an open-door policy, i.e. staff can approach and discuss with the HR department or person-in-charge their leaming directions and career aspirations. Most hotels adopt a more systematic and regular approach to involving employee feedback through the perfonnance management process; this will be discussed in greater detail in the next section. There was, nevertheless, a more methodical approach to career development in the Australian industry. Four hotels, compared to only two in Singapore, had adopted a formal targeted development programme for staff at all levels. This response does not take into account any future plans to formalize developmental opponunities in the hotels, is more evident in Singapore, where the youthful age of some of the hotels may have accounted for the cunent lack of systematic developmental practices. The presence of formal career paths may, in effect, reflect the progress Australian hoteliers have experienced in their attempts to modify a short-term employment perception (Timo, cited in Nankervis, 1993b), contrary to the recent findings of Nankervis and Debrah that suggested casual and transient employment was endemic (1995: 33) and a lack of formal career paths in the hotel industry. HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry 147 None the less, the existence of developmental opportunities were evidence of the hotel industries attempts to minimize voluntary staff tumover through long-term career opportunities in the trade (Nankervis and Debrah, 1995; Nankervis, 1993b). This consequently acts to offset the perception that labour tumover is an inherent and acceptable facet of the hotel industry (Mullins, 1995; Riley, 1991a; Woods, 1994; Meier, 1991), supporting the argument that it is manageable through effective HR practices. Mabey and Salaman (1995: 130) further argue that an investment [in an organizations people] will allow them to respond more effectively in a changing environment. This is especially tme considering the dynamic nature of the hotel trade, where consistency in service through an organizations people is considered most important (Denvir and McMahon, 1992; Anastassova and Purcell, 1995; Berger and Ghei, 1995). This may therefore be achieved through the use of training and development as an agent of change (Mabey and Salaman, 1995), where employees may be constantly informed and updated about, as well as strategically equipped for, the changing requirements of the hotel. Performance management Evaluating an employees performance is viewed as being very much related to employee development within the hotel trades of both countries. The prevalent adoption of this function in Australia reflects a significant improvement where earlier research (Nankervis, 1991, 1993a) showed a comparatively low usage of performance appraisal. A management-by-objectives (MBO) approach (Oberg, 1972; Kramar, 1994) to perfonnance management is used by all but one of the hotels in each country. This usually involves both supervisors and employees completing separate evaluation forms and conferring on the final report. Employee feedback and input are considered significant parts of the performance appraisal process, which is essentially modelled after the performance development plan (PDP) adopted by Harvey Hotels (Beckert and Walsh, 1991). The exceptions were primarily attributed to the fact that employee appraisal may not be as effective as a democratic process, for example where supervisors may not  want to create undue conflict and many attempt to be nice about the assessment. This would essentially introduce inaccuracy and prejudice into the procedure and would therefore reduce its effectiveness. Hotels in both countries distinguished between managerial and operative staff for performance management processes, with some hotels also having different appraisal standards among the particular levels of management, e.g. supervisory, middle management, etc. However, there was a general consensus on the criteria against which managerial and operative employees were evaluated: behavioural aspects were stressed for the fomier, with the latter being assessed on the more generic aspects of performance (Eade, 1993). In spite of the various appraisal methods available (Eade, 1993; Walker, 1992) (peer evaluation, subordinate appraisal, etc. all the hotels interviewed adopted a supervisor subordinate approach to assessing an employees performance and determining potential developmental requirements. However, half the sample in Australia adopted a combination of appraisal techniques, i.e. self-appraisal in conjunction with supervisor subordinate evaluation. This could be perceived to provide increased employee input, as well as a more balanced assessment of that staff member. The employee input was often 148 Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown viewed as an important mechanism for them to express issues relating to their developmental needs. One Singaporean hotel, however, was more rigorous in its appraisal process with the secondary supervisor also required to appraise the employee. This could be perceived to lessen any potential bias on the part of the immediate supervisor, and provide a more impartial and accurate evaluation of the worker. In Singapore, apart from assessing the overall performance of an employee through identifying and evaluating weaknesses and strengths, performance management was often used as a means of justifying remuneration adjustments. This was less common in Australia where award rates of payment rather than individual contracts govem pay rates. The frequency of conducting the performance management interview is also consistent between the two countries, i.e. either semi-annually or annually. In instances where probationary periods are required for newcomers, the first performance assessment occurs at the end of that period. Since probationary periods are more prevalent in Singapore, the early occurrence of this process also serves to diminish, somewhat, the incidence of staff tumover as a result of the recruitment [or] induction crisis (Mullins, 1995; and Thompson and Abbott, 1990), acting as an opportunity for feedback, clarification and identification of any necessary training needs. There was, none the less, an emphasis on determining an employees potential developmental needs through the identification of discrepancies in meeting performance objectives (Walker, 1992; Riley, 1991a). Exit interviews as a final evaluation process were a more commonly used among Singaporean hoteliers, even though there was one hotel in each country that did not see the need to undertake this practice. Despite the evidence that formal exit interviews are conducted with departing Australian employees, the ability to utilize the information derived effectively in identifying and isolating possible causes of tumover (Mok and Luk, 1995; Eade, 1993; Vetula, 1991; Kiechel, 1992), and consequently to propose necessary corrective action (Woods and Macauley, 1987), is more apparent in the Singapore hotel industry. Exit interviews in Australia are predominantly conducted as a routine process to ensure that final administrative matters are resolved before the employee leaves. Overall, although considered to be significant and contributory to the bottom-line, the performance management function is generally viewed as having an indirect effect on labour tumover in both countries, primarily through its determination of an employees training requirements, developmental opportunities and remuneration issues. Remuneration The role of remuneration was similarly perceived, in both industries, to be a  secondary factor through which labour tumover can be mitigated, especially monetary compensation. Generally incongruous with the limited literature that argues that remuneration is a major contributing factor in labour tumover (Hom and Griffeth, 1995; Woods and Macauley, 1989), the role compensation plays in the hiring and retention of staff was, however, acknowledged to primarily be through the concept of equity, value and satisfaction (Walker, 1992; Riley, 1991a). According to the expectancy theory (Mullins, 1995), there would be an increased tendency for people to leave an organization if a discrepancy existed between their expected and associated value, evident through the remuneration received. For example, if employees feel they are not compensated in accordance with the service provided to HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotei industry 149 the organization, they would be inclined to feel unappreciated and undervalued, thereby contributing to their decision to leave the company. This diminished significance attributed to remuneration, however, does not discount the contributory role that compensation plays in a hotels tumover statistics, and associated consequences like labour shortage, hiring expenses, etc. (Woods and Macauley, 1989; Boella, 1988; Woods, 1992; Mullins, 1995; Denvir and McMahon, 1992; Riley, 1991a; Lewis, 1989). There is also a direct impact on an organizations bottom-line essentially through a potential reduction in employee start-up costs, which include orientation, socialization, training, etc. However, remuneration has a comparatively large influence on tumover in Singapore. Unlike the Australian hotel industry that pays award rates for operative staff, different hotels in Singapore pay different rates according to their individual collective agreements (Debrah, 1994). Because of the tight labour market (Debrah, 1994; Goh et al., 1995), potential employees are allowed to choose their employers and work environments, a process  which may include job-hopping to hotels that can afford to pay higher wages (Debrah, 1994). However, the differences in the impact of compensation policies on supervisory and managerial staff in Australia and Singapore were comparatively negligible. The remuneration received by these salarial staff is not performance-based, but positionbased, thereby hardly affecting decisions of tumover and retention. Remuneration in Singapore, however, refers to a total compensation package, unlike in Australia where it refers primarily to monetary compensation, i.e. basic pay. The package is generally inclusive of the basic wage or salary, insurance coverage and fringe benefits, e.g. discount rates at sister-hotels (Walker, 1992). Employees at this level tended to remain with their employer for factors other than money. The impact of remuneration on labour tumover can therefore be perceived to be secondary, although more direct in Singapore, under conditions of labour scarcity and a potentially competitive wage market. Even so, in Australia, where particular categories of employees, such as chefs, are in relatively short supply, remuneration packages may play a role in attracting and retaining them. However, the function of remuneration has not been ignored, particularly in relation to the concepts of expectancy and equity. In summary, people would leave if they are not compensated according to their expectations, suggesting therefore a direct, albeit minimal, influence on labour tumover. Conclusions This research suggests that hoteliers in Singapore and Australia are adopting a more strategic perspective to HRM in tackling labour tumover. In both countries the greatest emphasis was placed on recruitment, selection, induction, socialization and training and development practices as mechanisms for minimizing tumover. Performance management and remuneration strategies were seen as having a more indirect impact through the strategies listed above. The broad range of strategies adopted by Singapore hoteliers to combat the initial difficulties in recruitment (Nankervis and Debrah, 1995) reflect a longer-term approach to HRM. This could be attributed to the correspondingly higher tumover rates in the hotels and the countrys low unemployment rate, and hence the industrys concened effort to attract and retain committed employees. However, it needs to be recognized 150 Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown Table 4 Key differences in HR activities between Singapore and Australia HR practices and policies Singapore Australia Recruitment †¢ Employee referrals †¢ Networking †¢ Reliance on part-time staff Selection †¢ Structured interviews behavioural emphasis †¢ Skills tests †¢ Person-job specifications †¢ Structured interviews †¢ Reference checking Orientation socialization (induction) †¢ Follow up feedback sessions †¢ Buddy system Training †¢ Guest comments analysis †¢ Employee consultation Development †¢ Targeted development, e.g. management trainee programme Performance management †¢ Impact on remuneration policies operative levels †¢ Exit interviews †¢ Limited impact on remuneration policies Remuneration †¢ Annual remuneration review position perfonnance based †¢ Individual collective agreements for operative staff †¢ Package remuneration †¢ Annual remuneration review position-based only †¢ Award rates for operative staff †¢ Monetary compensation that the attention given to recmitment and selection is as much an operational matter as it is a strategic approach attempting to reduce tumover. Orientation and socialization processes were emphasized similarly in Singapore and Australia, although there was comparatively more utilization of probationary periods (Eade, 1993; Thompson and Abbott, 1990; Day, 1988) and a buddy system (Eade, 1993: Day, 1988) to ensure an employees effective assimilation into the hotel in Singapore. Training in both countries has been closely associated with the induction process, with the latter seeming to be considered a subset of the former. Because orientation involves the basic operational instmction of staff, it is perceived to be part of the overall training function. Nonetheless, tumover is perceived to be significantly influenced by willingness to invest in this function, and therefore in an organizations human resources, such that there may be an increased sense of job satisfaction and morale; thereby retaining staff (Woods and Macauley, 1989; Conrade et al., 1994). Although developmental opportunities are present in both Singapore and Australia, they are concentrated in the supervisory and managerial, and therefore skilled (Riley, 1991), levels of the organization. None the less, the correlation between developmental paths and an organizations tumover rates were apparent, that is the opportunity to grow and advance within an organization would offset a perception of h otel employment as HRM strategies and labour turnover in the hotel industry 151 transient and casual (Nankervis, 1993b; Woods, 1992; Riley, 1991a; Mullins, 1995; Denvir and McMahon, 1992) through the availability of true career  paths. Performance appraisal and remuneration policies have minimal impact on labour tumover, except on the operative staff in Singapore where wages are negotiable and individually determined according to the collective agreements of each property. To summarize, the impact of the five variables on labour tumover has been comparable in both countries, although the primary distinction lies in the recruitment and selection processes adopted in view of the differing labour situations and employment levels (Nankervis and Debrah, 1995). As such, the results of this study indicate that hotels in Singapore may be more proactive than their Australian contemporaries in their use of HR strategies to mitigate labour tumover, despite a higher and more developed HR profile in Australia. The labour market situation in each country also exerts conside rable impact on the strategies employed. Further research might examine the casualization of employment in the industry in each country. Angeline Cheng and Alan Brown Edith Cowan University References Alfus, P. (1992) Structure Interviews to Reduce Turnover, Hotel and Motel Management, 207(1): 28. Anastassova, L. and Purcell, K. 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Managing Global Markets: Yoshinoya

Managing Global Markets: Yoshinoya International Brand Recognition: Yoshinoya is one of Japans largest restaurant chain companies and a global brand with over 1400 locations throughout the world including 99 in USA. It is known for its quick service and the menu is based on fresh ingredients served in a variety of rice bowls including its original recipe Beef Bowl that started it all in 1899 opening its first store in Tokyo Japan. Scope of Expansion: In 2006, Yoshinoya made franchising opportunities available to U.S. entrepreneurs. Service: Known for its quick service. It is one of its key strengths and tries to maintain it in all of its outlets and franchises. Quality: Yoshinoyas commitment to quality has never wavered since opening in Tokyos Nihonbashi District in 1899, even stopping sales of its popular beef bowls in 2003 when a ban on American beef went into effect in Japan. Beef bowls were off the Yoshinoya menu for two and half years, until the import ban on American beef was lifted, and company officials say the Yoshinoya decision reflects the commitment to maintain the best quality in both service and product. Its beef bowl recipe calls for American beef, and thats all Yoshinoya has served for nearly eleven decades. Professional Advertising Campaigns: Yoshinoya is known for its advertising campaigns and helps to advertise for the franchisees also. Skilled Traning: Yoshinoya has developed a stringent training regimen for all Yoshinoya employees, hence franchisees can enjoy having a courteous, well-trained staff from the very first day, and maintain the same level of high quality and service across the chain. Competency: Yoshinoyas major expansion plans are for Chinaand to open as many as 500 restaurants there by 2010, as part of its joint venture with Hong Kongs Hop Hing Food Group. There are already 99 restaurants operating in the USA and many more to come. Diversification Strategy: The company began expanding its range of restaurant formats, starting with the 1996 acquisition of Commoco Food Company, later renamed as Peter Pan Comoco, operator of the Hitokuchi Chaya baked good chain. In 1999, the company acquired struggling Kyotara Corp. and its chains of takeout sushi and seafood restaurants. The company acquired the Chinese food chain Shanghai Express in 2002, then added the Hanamaru noodle restaurant group in 2004. The companys other restaurant formats include the Kyotaru takeout sushi chain; Shanghai Express, a Chinese-foods concept; Hitokuchi Chaya, which sells fresh-baked taiyaki cakes and takoyaki dumplings; and the curry shop Pot Pot. Listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchanges First Section, Yoshinoya DC is led by chairman Shuji Abe. Yet gyudon remained the companys core recipe. Into the middle of the first decade of the 2000s, Yoshinoya stepped up international expansion of its flagship chain. The company entered Singapore in 1997, followed by the Philippines in 2001. By 2002, the company had launched a second mainland China partnership, targeting specifically the Shanghai market. In that year Yoshinoya also opened its first restaurant outside of the U.S. West Coast, targeting the New York City market, and boosting its number of restaurants in that market past 100. This was followed by the creation of a new subsidiary, Yoshinoya America, to oversee growth of its U.S. operations. Similarly, the company launched a subsidiary in Australia, which opened its first restaurant in 2004, followed by the launch of operations in Malaysia later the same year. Meantime, the companys Beijing-based joint venture announced its own plans to expand its restaurant chain to as many as 500 restaurants by 2010. These efforts enabled Yoshinoya to continue to post strong revenue gains through 2005. Nonetheless, the companys profitability suffered as the U.S. beef ban entered its third year. At last, however, the Japanese government announced its decision to lift much of the ban. This allowed the company to launch its first limited sales of its beef bowl by September. While supply shortages continued to hamper the company, it nonetheless was able to resume wider gyudon sales by December 2006. The effect on the companys revenues were dramatic; by the beginning of 2007, the company posted revenue gains of more than 119 percent. Yoshinoya DC had become one of Japans largest and most diversified and restaurant groups, building its empire on a recipe that had been a Japanese favorite for more than 100 years. Agility: Yoshinoya was hit hard, however, by the developing crisis in the global beef industry. The appearance of the first case of so-called mad cow disease in the United States, which was becoming notorious for the suspect nature of its sanitary conditions, prompted the Japanese government to enact a ban on all U.S. beef imports in 2003. Remembering its last ill-fated attempt to alter the ingredients of its famous beef bowl, Yoshinoya adopted an extreme response, announcing that it would simply end sales of its flagship dish until imports resumed. In place of the beef bowl, Yoshinoya rushed to develop new recipes, including chicken- and pork-based bowls. Weaknesses: Global competition with other fast-food chain of restaurants: Other competitive fast food chains such as KFC , Mc Donalds, Subway, Burger King have many restaurants world-wide. Mc Donalds has the largest Market share in the fast food industry. International Marketing Strategy The international marketing of Yoshinoya* and its services needs to improve for its survival.. With the growing numbers competitors branches worldwide, Yoshinoya needs to further expand its international market operations. In terms of competition, one great and possible strategy to do is a possible merger, joint ventures or strategic alliances because by doing this kind of strategy, it will lessen the competition in the market. It should look at localizing its menu and offer discounts and sales. IT should advertise to bring in more franchises to expand further. Keeping pace with changing consumer preferences As a natural process of reaction in the product marketing, the dynamic and diverse consumer preferences and behaviour is the most predicted trend that will affect the marketing strategy. Due to different geographical location, cultural beliefs and practices, lifestyle, health status, and personal indifferences, various segments of the current marketing strategy are subject to possible changes. Yoshinoya, should look at expanding or altering its menu based on the locations and the consumers prefermnces. Also, it should concentrate on low calorie foods as more and more fast food restaurants causes concerns of obesity and health issues. Eating places were forced to stake out a strong identity for themselves and to pay closer attention to consumers, who were becoming increasingly demanding Dependence on American beef for its signature Beef Bowl In late 2001, a domestic mad cow incident critically damaged beef bowl sales. In late 2003, Japan suspended imports of American beef due to a BSE incident in Washington, cutting off Yoshinoyas main source of short plate (fatty beef) that is the main component of its beef bowl. This forced Yoshinoya to terminate gyudon sales in Japan (the first time in its history) on February 11, 2004. News of the removal of this item from Yoshinoyas menu caused its fans and non-fans alike to queue in massive lines at Yoshinoya restaurants all around Japan to taste what might be their last beef bowl for a long time. Yoshinoya then switched to selling butadon (pork don) instead of beef. However, Yoshinoya restaurants in America continue to sell the beef bowl using American short plate, and restaurants in Japan sold a gyÃ…Â « yakiniku don (Yakiniku-style beef bowl). In December 2005, Japan agreed to remove the restriction on importing US beef. A letter to customers was then put up in restaurants promising that the beef bowl would return in a couple months or so. However, in January imports stopped again because inspectors found banned cattle parts in a veal shipment from the U.S. In June 2006, however, Japan lifted the ban on imports, and on July 31, 2006, Yoshinoya reposted the letter promising to bring back the beef bowl in about two months. External Factors for Yoshinoyas planned entry Ethnic food is seen as the basis for innovation in the food industry. Different cuisines and products are emerging on a continual basis, as consumers become more knowledgeable about eating habits in other parts of the world as well as becoming acquainted with foreign cuisines through foreign travel.Apart from formerly being consumed mostly in the evening, ethnic food is now being consumed throughout the day, for example as a lunchtime snack. The repertoire of ethnic food is forecast to widen even further, resulting in continuous increases in sales Chinese food is expected to remain the largest segment within the market for East Asian cuisine, since it has a significant customer base and is quite popular with large sections of population. However apart from Japanese cuisine, growth is expected to be strongest for the Thai and Indian segments, which are becoming increasingly popular. Japanese became a trend cuisine in the mid 1990s with several sushi outlets opening up in major cities. German retail quickly picked up on this trend and started offering Japanese sushi in its chilled cabinets at first in large cities only and then successfully in more rural areas. Today, in rural areas, sushi tends to be accepted very positively.Japanese food has only recently, within the last five to ten years become popular but the range available is still relatively restricted. Yoshinoya provides healthier food when compared to other fast food joints like Mc donalds and KFC.Wagamama is not Japanese cuisine. In fact, there are no Wagamamas in Japan or China so Yoshinoya providing authentic Japanese food is an advantage. Changes within the population have directly affected the development of the food sector. As the number of single households and working women has increased, coupled with an aging population, German societys values have shifted towards focusing more on the quality of life. Todays consumer is more widely travelled and open-minded towards new, exotic cuisines. Risk factors Ineffective risk management within partnership working may lead to poor working relationships and lack of engagement,not realising benefits,community outcomes not achieved against agreed priorities,reputational damage,poor value for money and missed opportunities to secure cashable efficiencies gains and contribute towards sustainability targets. PESTEL analysis: Political Factors The government in Europe is supposed to be politically stable. In recent years, the Government has pursued policies aimed at making Europe more attractive to investors, creating a welcoming environment for foreign investment. It has low labour and transport costs and the introduction of the single market has eliminated exchange rate fluctuations and reduced overall transaction costs. European government is planning to lower corporate tax which will be extremely beneficial. . Denmark badly needs skilled foreign workers, and will change laws to make them welcome. The rise of the newly formed centrist party New Alliance, offers the minority centre-right coalition government a stable partner.encourage entrepreneur and energy reforms, while rejigging the administrative structure of the municipalities. The addition of the conservatives to the coalition suggests a more active foreign policy, including stronger ties with America, but also a mediating role in the EUs strained relations with R ussia.Less belt-tightening will boost the economy, as will increasing integration into west European production and supply chains. The government controls the marketing and licensing of fast food restaurants which makes it important for every company to maintain good relations with the government and benefit from tax reductions. Ireland With the Green Party now in the coalition government, policy will shift slightly towards environmental issues, though the governments overall focus-keeping businesses competitive-wont change. Economic management will be more complicated than during the boom years; spending cuts, for example, may now be required,creating stresses within the government. Economic factors In last few years there has been a financial crisis in the market. Cost of everything has increased due to fall in major investment banks. There have been inflationary pressures due to high energy prices and lack of credit. All this would amount to increase in price of supply chain and goods. The cost of food items has increased as there has been a food crisis. France and Germany have interrelated economies,so selling in both the markets would not yield great results. Yoshinoya import most of its raw material such as beef and potatoes due to local market cannot supply in abundant to meet the demand of its product they need to be aware of global supply and currency exchange. Since the pricing is above normal food pricing Yoshinoya consumers may find it hard to make the buyer agree to the price on offer. Moreover if the economy is bad and income percapita is affected, the demand of Yoshinoya product will certainly going down. Good economy generally means disposable income is more and p eople can spend more on more expensive food . SOCIAL/Cultural Not many people can afford eating out all the time but with the fast food option providing affordable meals people have caught up with increased spending habits.But consumers always also look for value for money and demand quality in services and more conveniences that can differentiate one restaurant from another. There is not much difference between cultural and the purchase of products in a single country but for different countries cultural sensitivity should be upheld. For example in India people (Hindu) do not take beef, Muslim countries do not take pork, German like beers, Finnish like fish type of food menu, Chinese like to associate food with something good (for example prosperity), Asian like rice and Americans eat in big-sized menu. So far Yoshinoya has shown good efforts in localization of its menu to suit local taste but it should constantly survey and learn about local culture to better understand and design the best product for them Technological European online meal solutions prospects by country For a fast food restaurant, technology does not give a very high impact on the company and it is not a significant macro environment variables. Computer ordering (till system) and using technology for production,supply and research reasons is a requirement.Technology implementation can make the management more effective and cost saving in the long term. Environmental factors Yoshinoya should invest more on the environment related issues. They should reduce their dependency on beef dishes as production of beef involves methane gasses coming from the cows ranch causing green house effect. Large scale plantation affects the environment and loss of green forest opening for plantation activities. Vegetarian environmentalist criticizes the fast-food giant for cruelty to animals and slaughtering. Use of plastic is also an issue as millions of people are known to throw away packaging which is hard to recycle. Our world is getting concern on environment issue and business operating here should not just care for profit, but careful usage of world resources for sustainable development and care for environment safety and health for our future generation. Legal factors Legal requirements of a business owner should be to follow stipulated laws such as operating hours, business registration, tax requirement, labor and employment laws and quality environment certification (such as ISO) in which the outlet has been certified. The legal requirement is important because the offenders will be fined or have their business prohibited. b) Country Shortlisting This part addresses why the country Uk was chosen from amongst the 27 other countries belonging to the EU. A 2008 study was conducted worldwide counting the number of fast food restaurants per person.The UK has claimed this title with Australia second and the United States third. England alone accounted for 25% of all fast food. The majority of multinational corporations that are based outside of Europe but have a presence on the continent, establish their European operations in the UK. Decision making global integration vs global responsivenessmulti domestic strategy,the food industry has a weak need to integrate operations across countries because scale economies are highly offset by transportational costs. In Russia,eating out is also becoming increasingly common. A burgeoning middle class is creating a solid customer base and is increasing demand for international foods, with the result that numerous restaurants and cafà ©s are opening or expanding. In France With regard to business and investment, the climate cannot be considered to be very conducive due to lack of fiscal and investment freedom, and freedom from government intervention. Business taxes are also higher compared to other developed countries which acts as a deterrent for investment. In 2004, Germanys share of the ethnic food retail market (by value) within Europe was relatively small (9.2% compared to the UKs 68.8%). Nevertheless, it was the third largest market, following the UK and France (who had 9.7%) In 2006, the Ethnic Food retail market in Europe was worth EUR 4.12 billion. The UK has the largest and most developed market, with sales worth over EUR 2.34 billion. In fact, the UK, France and Germany together account for over 80% of total sales. It notes that countries like Spain and Ireland have much smaller markets, but that sales are on an upward spiral So first establish about 5 stores in uk and 5 in germany check the performance over a year hope to gain from spillover effects where Media helps it to get noticed in nearby countries and the following year expand in markets like Denmark and Netherlands which are in the same region. So the plan suggests that the country selection is also region specific.Northern European countries like england and Denmark andWestern European countrie like Germany and Netherlands Economic stability based on GDP Spain has per capita GDP of UK is $ 34,619 (International Monetary Fund,2009).It is the third largest economy in Europe after Germany and France and the second largest after germany in terms of Purchasing Power Parity. Japanese in Uk Colindale in north London has Oriental City a shopping centre which has the highest footfall of Asian consumers. North West England, Manchester is town with largest population and Aberystwyth largest student town are locations for opening a store. When eating outside the home, Japanese expatriates in the Netherlands most commonly patronise Chinese restaurants (29% of meals eaten out); Japanese restaurants run a close second at 25%, Italian restaurants at 19%, and French restaurants at 10% (Cwiertka 2000, p. 17) Start with 10 stores with centralization,check performance and then shift to decentralization. The strategy for the first three years in Europe should be of Centralization and concentration in big country markets . Part 2 a) Market Entry Strategies Why would Yoshinoya choose franchising? Yoshinoya wants to aggressively expand in the European market.The franchising model will help it expand its operations on a faster scale. Speed of entry Speed of entry can be classified as Aggressive-broad front and aggressive-focused. Yoshinoya must have systematic and dynamic game plan using all of its resources. How will the franchise work? Joint venture will be 50-50. Yoshinoya has had nation wide franchising in the United States offering single franchise and territory arrangements. Having identified a franchisee, NewLook must determine aspects such as franchisee fee and initial investment required to get the venture on road. NewLook can follow the standard industry practice of charging between $30,000 $40,000 per location per year a standard followed by 70% of the franchisors. Additionally, the terms of franchising also need to lay down the amount of royalty that franchisee needs to pay (International Franchise Association, 2010). This figure is a percentage of franchisees gross monthly income and could be set at 4%. Risks of franchising Without having a local presence in Europe, this method results in a great loss of control and supervision over the franchise as the franchisor has no legal entity in Europe. However Wholly owned facilities, at the start would serve as anchors while they build relationships in the host country to support further entry through non-equity modes such as franchising and management service contracts (Bartlett Ghoshal, 2000). So it might prove difficult to build familiarity and relationships in the market, non-equity contractual forms are readily adopted to support the increasing degree of presence. Due to Yoshinoyas present financial condition franchising would be the best option but finding the right franchising partner would be the most important. Exit Strategies Franchisors that they needed to understand that their business would fail, and in fact all businesses are bound for failure. Daniel Hudson Burnham said Make no little plans; they have no magic to stir mens blood. So plan. Plan to profit. Plan to nurture and build. And plan to exit.If Yoshinoya does not get its estimated profit or is in loss, it can exit the market. It is not easy to exit the market as closing franchised stores due to non performing would affect brand image and create stutor among other franchising partners.If a joint venture is established exiting market becomes an easy option as the share can be sold to the partner. Relocation of non profitable stores can be an option. Additionally, once the initial period of uncertainty is over and the payoff (for NewLook) from the venture is more or less stabilized, NewLook may find it advantageous to dissolve the partnership by either acquiring the franchisees interest in the venture or selling its own stake. The price for the t ransfer of ownership interests between two parties should be set in the original contract. To determine the share price, both parties could accept the appraisal of an independent evaluator (Chi, Tailan; McGuire, Donald J, 1996). b)Functional strategies, including product, marketing, and operations decisions. The marketing strategy inviloves 4ps product,price,place and promotion.As yoshinoya is not yet established in the European market they could use Penetrative pricing policy to expand the menu by adding chicken based side orders,sushi,soups and salads.To cut costs,decreasing price should not be an option instead they should reduce the quantity of products.Table service is a good idea.On the other hand having a limited menu, rapid table turnover and employing temporary staff on minimum wage so that pension and health benefits dont have dolled out is a way of cutting costs too. A marketing strategy involves using brand names and other marketing elements.Yoshinoya must look at protecting brand name and patent.In a Franchise system the franchisor does the RD and Marketing while Franchisee does the Production and sales and service. c) Yoshinoyas Organizational Structure Organizational structure shows how management decisions would be taken and the flow. VP (HR) will be reporting to CEO and will be accountable to all HR related operations. Senior VP (marketing and sales) will be reporting to CEO and will be accountable for marketing and sales. CFO will be reporting to the CEO and will be accountable for all financial operations. VP (Operation development) will be reporting to COO and will be in charge for operations and development. Then VP (Investor relation) will be reporting to COO and will be responsible for relations with the investors. VP (public relations) will be responsible for public relations. Special task force would be formed to work in teams to take care for any new stores to be opened or major structural changes to be made in functioning of any stores. Although the organisational structure outlines who reports to whom within the MNE, it does not indicate where decsisions are made within the framework.companies must determine where decisions will be made.The higher the level within the organisation at which decisions are made, the more they are considered to be centralised;the lower the level,the more they are decentralized.whether decision making should be centralized or decentralized can be addressed from the stand point of either the company as a whole or some part of it,such as particular subsidary operation. d)Strategic control system Conclusion It is observed from various analysis made above like PESTLE and SWOT, that Yoshinoya is a brand which needs to expand internationally in order to increase its revenue and to compete with other big brands. References: http://www.swot-pest-porter.co.uk Hollensen, S (2003) Global Marketing: A Decision-Oriented Approach. 3rd ed. Pearson Education Wall, S Rees, B (2004) International Business. FT Prentice Hall. LEE, K CARTER, S (2005) Global Marketing Management. Oxford: OUP Mellenius, H 2007 Market Orientation as a Branding Strategy. Working Paper, department of Business Studies, Uppsala University. 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